Diplomacy Meets Paradiplomacy: Unpacking Central Government Responses through Evidence from Turkey’s Paradiplomacy

Abstract

This study examines the central government’s response to the paradiplomacy of sub-state actors through an analysis of the Turkish case, using a qualitative approach. As part of this research, a total of twelve face-to-face or virtual interviews were conducted with the representatives from the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Marmara Municipalities Union, and academics between June 2023 and November 2023. It views paradiplomacy as an outcome of the ongoing trend to localize diplomacy and aims to identify varying central government responses to paradiplomacy. These responses are analyzed using a three-fold categorization: positive, negative and mixed. The characteristics of each category explored in the context of the Turkish case. The study suggests that, despite the central government’s opportunistic approach to paradiplomacy, its response has shown a cyclical tendency. The central government’s stance on paradiplomacy is therefore complex and politically driven. It fluctuates along a broad spectrum, ranging from direct support to outright exclusion. This reflects the shifting political dynamics in Turkey.

Keywords

Sub-state diplomacy, Local diplomacy, Sub-state actors, Local governance, Turkish Municipalities

Citation

Seven Erdoğan and Emrah Atar, “Diplomacy Meets Paradiplomacy: Unpacking Central Government Responses through Evidence from Turkey’s Paradiplomacy”, Uluslararası İlişkiler, Advanced Online Publication, 25 November 2025, pp. 1–19. DOI: 10.33458/uidergisi.1825411

Affiliations

Seven ERDOĞAN Associate Professor, Department of International Relations, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University, Rize E-Mail: [email protected] Orcid: 0000-0001-9991-2074

Emrah ATAR Associate Professor, Department of Political Science and Public Administration, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University, Rize E-Mail: [email protected] Orcid: 0000-0003-1221-5415